Polymer

A polymer is a macro molecule and it is composed of many subunits. 
Synthetic and natural polymers plays vital role in our daily life. Both natural and synthetic polymers are created by polymerization of many small molecules. Polymerization is the method of creating synthetic polymers by combining smaller molecules  together by covalent bonds. The term was introduced  in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius. But definition  is different  from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, who spent the next decade finding experimental evidence. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1953 "for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry. Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science.

Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a natural/biological polymer, and the polystyrene of styrofoam is an example of a synthetic polymer. 
Proteins , nucleic acids, and polysaccharides are purely polymeric and these  are composed in large part of polymeric components.
A special type of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, and these are the main constituent of wood and paper.
The synthetic polymers are more demanded in the world includes polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, synthetic rubber, phenol formaldehyde resin, neoprene, nylon, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone etc…, .
More than million tons of these polymers are made every year.
Laboratory synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. The essential difference from chain growth polymerization.


Reference Click Here

Elephant's toothpaste

Elephant's toothpaste is a foamy substance created by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide using potassium iodide as a catalyst. Hydrogen peroxide is main substance foe this reaction. Hydrogen peroxide is  made up of two hydrogen and two oxygen molecules. The bonds between these molecules naturally break, when hydrogen peroxide slowly becomes water and oxygen gas. 
Reaction
2h2o2____>2h2o+o2

It requires small amount of these materials to making foams like valcano. It is simple experiments for children to making valcano. It is also called as marshmallow exeriment.

Why i am choosing this topic?

Ten days ago a teacher and two children poured a mixture of solution in a beaker when suddenly large amounts of foams appeared . It goes on viral in social media.


See this below

Video

Reference:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant's_toothpaste

https://www.thoughtco.com/elephant-toothpaste-chemistry-demonstration-604250

Orgel diagrams

Orgel diagrams are correlation diagrams which show the relative energies of electronic terms in transition metal complexes, much like Tanabe–Sugano diagrams. They are named after their creator, Leslie Orgel. Orgel diagrams are restricted to only show weak field (i.e. high spin) cases, and offer no information about strong field (low spin) cases. Because Orgel diagrams are qualitative, no energy calculations can be performed from these diagrams; also, Orgel diagrams only show the symmetry states of the highest spin multiplicity instead of all possible terms, unlike a Tanabe–Sugano diagram. Orgel diagrams will, however, show the number of spin allowed transitions, along with their respective symmetry designations. In an Orgel diagram, the parent term (P, D, or F) in the presence of no ligand field is located in the center of the diagram, with the terms due to that electronic configuration in a ligand field at each side. There are two Orgel diagrams, one for d1, d4, d6, and d9 configurations and the other with d2, d3, d7, and d8 configurations.

Orgel diagrams

In an Orgel diagram lines with the same Russell – Saunders terms will diverge due to the non-crossing rule, but all other lines will be linear.

 Also, for the D Orgel diagram, the left side contains d1 and d6 tetrahedral and d4 and d9 octahedral complexes. The right side contains d4 and d9 tetrahedral and d1 and d6 octahedral complexes. For the F Orgel diagram, the left side contains d2 and d7 tetrahedral and d3 and d8 octahedral complexes. The right side contains d3 and d8 tetrahedral and d2 and high spin d7 octahedral complexes.

Reference Orgel-diagram

Alkaloids

Alkaloids are a class of naturally occurring organic compounds that mostly contain basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and, more rarely, other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction. Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial , antiasthma , anticancer ,cholinomimetic , vasodilatory , antiarrhythmic, analgesic , antibacterial , and antihyperglycemic activities . Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine, or as starting points for drug discovery. Other alkaloids possess psychotropic and stimulant activities  and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs. Alkaloids can be toxic also.Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste. The boundary between alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing natural compounds is not clear-cut. Compounds like amino acid peptides, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acid, amines, and antibiotics are usually not called alkaloids. Natural compounds containing nitrogen in the exocyclic positions  are usually classified as amines rather than as alkaloids. Some authors, however, consider alkaloids a special case of amines.

Reference Click Here

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid  DNA) is a molecule composed of two chains that coil around each other to form a double helix carrying genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids; alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life.

The two DNA strands are also known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases (cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, pyrimidines and purines. In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine.

Reference DNA

Caffeine

Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant of the methylxanthine class.  It is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive drug. Unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in  nearly all parts of the world.  Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the autonomic nervous system.

Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid, and is chemically related to the adenine and guanine bases of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is found in the seeds, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants .  Beverages containing caffeine are ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance.  Caffeine can have both positive and negative health effects. It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity and apnea of prematurity. Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines.  It may improve weight gain during therapy and reduce the incidence of cerebral palsy as well as reduce language and cognitive delay. On the other hand, subtle long-term side effects are possible.


Reference: Caffeine

Enzymes

Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate chemical reactions. The biological processes that occur within all living organisms are chemical reactions, and most are regulated by enzymes. Without enzymes, many of these reactions would not take place at a perceptible rate. Enzymes catalyze all aspects of cell metabolism. This includes the digestion of food, in which large nutrient molecules (such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats) are broken down into smaller molecules; the conservation and transformation of chemical energy; and the construction of cellular macromolecules from smaller precursors. Many inherited human diseases, such as albinism and phenylketonuria, result from a deficiency of a particular enzyme.

Enzymes also have valuable industrial and medical applications. The fermenting of wine, leavening of bread, curdling of cheese, and brewing of beer have been practiced from earliest times, but not until the 19th century were these reactions understood to be the result of the catalytic activity of enzymes. Since then, enzymes have assumed an increasing importance in industrial processes that involve organic chemical reactions. The uses of enzymes in medicine include killing disease-causing microorganisms, promoting wound healing, and diagnosing certain diseases.  A large protein enzyme molecule is composed of one or more amino acid chains called polypeptide chains. The amino acid sequence determines the characteristic folding patterns of the protein’s structure, which is essential to enzyme specificity.



Reference: https://www.britannica.com/science/enzyme

Flavonoids

Flavonoids are a class of phenolic compounds widely distributed in plants. Quercetin and rutin are among the most largely found flavonoids in a great variety of fruits and vegetables, including tea, coffee, and other grains. As it has been observed with other biological active nonnutrient components, flavonoids may promote desirable and nondesirable physiological effects in humans.

 Flavonoids are a group of plant metabolites thought to provide health benefits through cell signalling pathways and antioxidant effects. These molecules are found in a variety of fruits and vegetables. Flavonoids are polyphenolic molecules containing 15 carbon atoms and are soluble in water. They consist of two benzene rings connected by a short three carbon chain.  Flavonoids are abundant in plants, in which they perform several functions. They are essential pigments for producing the colors needed to attract pollinating insects. In higher order plants, flavonoids are also required for UV filtration, nitrogen fixation, cell cycle inhibition, and as chemical messengers.  Health benefits to humans

Flavonoids are important antioxidants, and promote several health effects. Flavonoids are also abundant in red wine.

Reference: https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Flavonoids.aspx

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/flavonoid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavonoid

Citric acid

Citric acid is a weak organic acid that has the chemical formula C6H8O7. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits. In biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the metabolism of all aerobic organisms. More than a million tons of citric acid are manufactured every year. It is used widely as an acidifier, as a flavoring and chelating agent. A citrate is a derivative of citric acid; that is, the salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion found in solution. Citric acid exists in greater than trace amounts in a variety of fruits and vegetables, most notably citrus fruits. Lemons and limes have particularly high.




Reference: Click Here

Ferrocene

Ferrocene is one of the most stable organometallic compounds with a sandwich-shaped structure. with the formula Fe(C5h5)2.  The molecule consists of two cyclopentadienyl rings bound on opposite sides of a central iron atom. It is a orange solid with a camphor-like odor.

Ferrocene is soluble in normal organic solvents, such as benzene, but is insoluble in water. It is stable to temperatures as high as 400 °C. Ferrocene and its derivatives are antiknock agents used in the fuel for petrol engines. Ferrocene derivatives have been investigated as drugs.

Reference: Ferrocene

                    Ferrocene

Sodium

Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table, because it has a single electron in its outer shell. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and exists in numerous minerals such as feldspars, sodalite, and rock salt (NaCl). Many salts of sodium are highly water-soluble. Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Sodium is an essential element for all animals and some plants. Sodium at standard temperature and pressure is a soft silvery metal that combines with oxygen in the air and forms grayish white sodium oxide .  Sodium metal can be easily cut with a knife and is a good conductor of electricity and heat because it has only one electron in its valence shell. Sodium in its metallic form is very important in making esters and in the manufacture of organic compounds. Sodium is also a component of sodium chloride (NaCl) a very important compount found everywhere in the living environment. Other uses are: to improve the structure of certain alloys; in soap, in combination with fatty acids, in sodium vapor lamps, to descal metals, to purify molten metals.
Solid sodium carbonate is needed to make glass.  Sodium is a compound of many foodstuffs, for instance of common salt. It is necessary for humans to maintain the balance of the physical fluids system. Sodium is also required for nerve and muscle functioning. Too much sodium can damage our kidneys and increases the chances of high blood pressure.



Reference: Click Here
                        Click Here

Grignard reagent

A Grignard reagent  is a chemical compound with the generic formula R–Mg–X, where X is a halogen and R is an organic group, normally an alkyl or aryl. Two typical examples are methylmagnesium chloride H 3C–Mg–Cl and phenylmagnesium bromide (C6H 5)–Mg–Br. They are a subclass of the organomagnesium compounds. Grignard compounds are popular reagents in organic synthesis for creating new carbon-carbon bonds.  Grignard reagents are extremely reactive solids. They are normally handled as solutions in solvents with an ether group, such as diethyl ether or tetrahydrofuran.

Reactions of Grignard reagents

With carbonyl compounds

Reference:Click here