Phosphorus

Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol P and atomic number  is15.It exists in two major forms white phosphorus and red phosphorus, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, and it is a soft .Phosphorus is essential for life. Phosphorus is a major element essential for many biological processes, for instance for DNA synthesis, ATP synthesis, membrane synthesis, and protein phosphorylation.Phosphorus is a mineral found in your bones. Along with calcium, phosphorus and it  is needed to build strong healthy bones, as well as, keeping other parts of your body healthy.Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the human body. As much as 85 percent of phosphorus is found with calcium in bones and teeth.




Sources: wikipedia and sciencedirect.com

Isomers

Two or more compounds possessing the same molecular formula but different properties is known as isomerism. Such compounds are called as isomers.
Types:

1.Structural Isomerism
2.Stereoisomerism

1.Structural isomerism:
Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures.
Different types of structural isomerism:
(i) Chain isomerism:
When two or more compounds have similar molecular formula but different carbon skeletons, these are referred to as chain isomers and the phenomenon is
termed as chain isomerism. For example, C5H12 represents three compounds:
 (ii)Position isomerism: When two or more compounds differ in the position of
substituent atom or functional group on the carbon skeleton, they are called position isomers and this phenomenon is termed as position isomerism. For example, the molecular formula C3H8O represents two alcohols
(iii) Functional group isomerism: Two or more compounds having the same molecular formula but different functional groups are called functional isomers and this phenomenon is termed as functional group isomerism. For example, the molecular formula C3H6O represents an aldehyde and  ketone

(iv) Metamerism: It arises due to different alkyl chains on either side of the functional group in the molecule. For example, C4H10O represents methoxypropane (CH3OC3H7) and ethoxyethane (C2H5OC2H5).


Stereoisomerism
The compounds that have the same constitution and sequence of covalent bonds but differ in relative positions of their atoms or groups in space are called stereoisomers. This special type of isomerism is called as stereoisomerism and can be classified as geometrical and optical isomerism.

Classification of Organic Compounds

Organic compounds are molecules that are contains mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms. If the molecule just contains carbon and hydrogen atoms, it is  called a hydrocarbon. Organic compounds constitute about 90% of all compounds. Organic molecules can also contain other atoms such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and halogens.
Depending upon the arrangement of carbon atoms in their structure, organic compounds are broadly categorized into two types.
1.Acyclic or Open Chain compounds.
2.Cyclic or Closed Chain compounds.
Molecules can either be an open chain or closed chain.
open chain - A molecule that doesn't form into a ring. It can either be a straight chain molecule or a branched chain
closed chain - A molecule that does form a ring. This is also known as a cyclic compound.



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Sources: ncert.nic.in  study.com

Dimethyl Ether

Dimethyl Ether is a colorless volatile poisonous liquid compound used as a solvent, fuel, aerosol, propellant and refrigerant.Dimethyl ether is the organic compound with the formula CH3OCH3(C2H6O)Dimethyl ether is an ether in which the oxygen atom is connected to two methyl groups. It is currently being  used in a variety of fuel applications. It is an isomer of ethanol. It is shipped as a liquefied gas under its vapor pressure. Contact with the liquid can cause frostbite. It is easily ignited. Its vapors are heavier than air. Any leak can be either liquid or vapor. Dimethyl ether is one of the sustainable energy sources because it is clean and easy to handle. DME can be produced from various materials such as coal, natural gas (NG), and biomass.DME can be synthesised directly either from CO2 and H2 or from CO and H2 .

Corrosion

Corrosion is a natural process, it converts a refined metal to a more chemically-stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. Corrosion is a dangerous and extremely costly problem. Because of it, buildings and bridges can collapse, oil pipelines break, chemical plants leak, and bathrooms flood.this means electrochemical oxidation of metal in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen or sulfates.  General corrosion occurs when most or all of the atoms on the same metal surface are oxidized, damaging the entire surface. Most metals are easily oxidized: they tend to lose electrons to oxygen (and other substances) in the air or in water. Corrosion can also occur in materials other than metals, such as ceramics or polymers.Corrosion degrades the useful properties of materials and structures including strength, appearance and permeability to liquids and gases.Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in air. There are various ways of protecting metals from corrosion (oxidation) including painting, hot dip galvanizing, and combinations of these.All metals can corrode. Some, like pure iron, corrode quickly. Stainless steel, however, which combines iron and other alloys, is slower to corrode and is therefore used more frequently.All small group of metals, called the Noble Metals, are much less reactive than others. As a result, they corrode rarely.



Soorce: wikipedia,electrochem.org,thebalence.com

Chemistry in Our Daily Life

Chemistry is a big part in our everyday life. We start the day with Chemistry. One can find chemistry in daily life in  the  foods  we  eat,  the  air  we breathe,  cleaning  chemicals,  our  emotions and  literally  every object we  can see or  touch.  Household chemicals serve as a reminder of chemistry’s direct effect on our daily lives. Some common  chemistry may be obvious, but others might surprise us.  Our body is made up of chemical  compounds, which are combinations of  elements. However, many useful chemicals are also dangerous. Common household items such as cleaners, detergent, auto supplies and paint may contain dangerous chemicals. Potentially dangerous chemicals can be found in every room in your home. If not properly stored or used, these products could cause minor to serious and even life-threatening health problems for you or your children.  The  emotions  that you  feel  are  a  result  of  chemical  messengers. Soap is  a  chemical  that mankind has  been  making  for a very long  time.  The  presentation  also  deals  with  the  chemistry  of  coffee,  drinks,  lactose  intolerance,  smoking  and chemistry of sleep.






Source : www.researchgate.net and wikipedia

Ammonia

Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3.Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell.is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceutical products and is used in many commercial cleaning products.NH3 boils at −33 °C at a pressure of one atmosphere, so the liquid must be stored under pressure or at low temperature.Ammonia is a chemical found in trace quantities in nature, being produced from nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater,.Ammonia is also found throughout the Solar System on Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.Ammonia is vital to society, but its manufacture is energy intensive,  and requires high initial capital outlays.Today, global ammonia production occurs at a rate of about 250–300 tonnes per minute, and provides fertilizers that support nearly 60% of the planet’s population.


Source:
Wikipedia and nature.com

Amorphous Solids

Solids can be divided into two types : crystalline and amorphous. The first and most common type, known as crystalline or amorphous, has regular crystal lattices, or long-range order. These solids are stabilized by the regular pattern of their atoms. Their characteristic properties include distinct melting and boiling points, regular geometric shapes, and flat faces when cleaved or sheared. Some examples include sodium chloride, ice, metals, and diamonds.

Amorphous solids are rigid, but they lack repeated periodicity or long-range order in their structure. These substances do not show a sharp distinction between the solid and liquid states. Amorphous solids lack a characteristic geometry, have identical properties along all axes.

Amorphous solids include both natural and artificial materials. The most frequently cited example of an amorphous solid is glass.  Additional examples include thin film lubricants, metallic glasses, polymers, and gels. Most classes of solid can be found in an amorphous form. Amorphous solids can be prepared in a variety of ways, such as rapidly cooling from the molten state 

Effects of Radiation on Life

Radiation is used in medicine, to generate electricity, to make food last longer, to sterilize equipment, for carbon dating of archeological finds, and many other reasons.When these particles come into contact with organic material, such as human tissue, they will damage them if levels are high , in a short period of time. This can lead to burns, problems with the blood, gastrointestinal system, cardiovascular and central nervous system, cancer, and sometimes death.
Radiation is normally managed safely, but its use also entails a risk.Radiation is all around us and it is used safely in many applications.There is no cure, but barriers can prevent exposure and some medications may remove some radiation from the body.
Anyone who believes they have been exposed to radiation should seek medical attention as soon as possible.The signs and symptoms of acute radiation poisoning are vomiting, diarrhea, and nausea and loss of appetite,malaise, or feeling unwell,headache,rapid heartbeat.


Source: medicinal newstoday.com and wikipedia

Atmosphere of Earth

The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, commonly known as air, that surrounds the planet Earth.By the volume, dry air contains nitrogen, oxygen, argon,  carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases.It  also contains a variable amount of water vapor.The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15×1018 kg. The study of Earth's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science [aerology].Water vapor accounts for roughly 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass.

The five main layers are:
Exosphere,Thermosphere,Mesosphere,Stratosphere,Troposphere.


Source - wikipedia

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry is an international Organizations that represents chemists in individual countries. which sets specific standards in chemistry in order to maintain consistency from one chemist to another. This allows chemists to talk to each other and always understand exactly what the other chemist is talking about.
It is a member of the International Council for Science (ICSU). IUPAC is registered in Zürich, Switzerland.This administrative office is headed by IUPAC's executive director currently Lynn Soby.


Responsibilities of IUPAC:
-.Nomenclature, naming compounds
-.Standardizing weights and constants
-.Establishing proper review and publication of scientific papers
IUPAC standardized the periodic table Periodic table
Today IUPAC has met all of these goals.
 We have a standardized weight for each of the elements, a specific number for Avogadro's number, and many other standards based on the work of IUPAC. There is a name for each molecule that any chemist can use to determine the structure of the molecule, based simply on the name.


Source --Wikkipedia and study.com

Boron

Boron is a chemical element with symbol B and atomic number 5. Produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation. It  is a low-abundance element in the Solar system and in the Earth's crust.Industrially, very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon.Several allotropes of boron exist: amorphous boron is a brown powder; crystalline boron is silvery to black.extremely hard , and a poor electrical conductor at room temperature.

 The primary use of elemental boron is as boron filaments with applications similar to carbon fibers in some high-strength materials.About half of all boron consumed globally is an additive in fiberglass for insulation and structural materials.Boron as sodium perborate is used as a bleach. A small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors, and reagent intermediates in the synthesis of organic fine chemicals.

In biology, borates have low toxicity in mammals , but are more toxic to arthropods and are used as insecticides.Boron is an essential plant nutrient and boron compounds such as borax and boric acid are used as fertilizers in agriculture.It is only required in small amounts, with excess being toxic. Boron compounds play a strengthening role in the cell walls of all plants.

Source -Wikipedia

Nanoparticles

A nanoparticle is a microscopic particle with at least one dimension less than 100 nm.The term "nanoparticle" is not usually applied to individual molecules; it usually refers to inorganic materials. Nanoparticle research is currently an area of intense scientific research, due to  variety of potential applications in biomedical, optical, and electronic fields.Copper nanoparticles smaller than 50 nm are considered super hard .There are several methods for creating nanoparticles, including gas condensation, attrition, chemical precipitation, ion implantation, pyrolysisand hydrothermal synthesis. In attrition, macro- or micro-scale particles are ground in a ball mill, a planetary ball mill, or other size-reducing mechanism. Nanoparticles often have unexpected visible properties because they are small enough to confine their electrons.For example gold nanoparticles appear deep red to black in solution.Nanoparticles have a very high surface area to volume ratio. Nanoparticles present possible dangers, both medically and environmentally.Nanoparticles have potential and actual applications in all industries.(agriculture ,automotive, construction, food electronics etc..,)

Source( wikipedia, sciencedaily.com)

Nickel

Nickel is a chemical element (Ni )and  atomic number is 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal.Nickel belongs to the transition metals and it is hard and ductile. Pure native nickel is found in Earth's crust only in small amounts. Nickel was first discovered and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, Nickel ores are mined in 23 countries

Nickel is slowly oxidized by air at room temperature and is considered corrosion-resistant. it has been used for plating iron and brass, coating chemistry equipment, and manufacturing certain alloys that retain a high silvery polish, such as German silver.Nickel is one of the most widely used metals on the  planet. According to the Nickel Institute, the metal is used in over 300,000 different products. Most often it is found in steels and metal alloys, but it is also used in the production of batteries and permanent magnets.Nickel is one of four elements (the others are iron, cobalt, and gadolinium) that are ferromagnetic at approximately room temperature.

Nickel occurs less abundantly than cobalt. It is found in mainly in combination with arsenic ,antimony  and sulphur

Main ores of Nickel: pentlandite,   copper,iron.

It has melting point about 1453 degree c. It has high electrical and thermal conductivity. It is used in the making of spatulas, crucibles and tongs .

Source:

www.thebalance.com

  Wikipedia

 principles of inorganic chemistry.

Fertilizers

Fertilizers are essential nutrients for plants. Plants requires phosphorus, potassium,nitrogen,sulphur,calcium ,ion and magnesium.These elements are present in the soil in the form of minerals.After the few years of cropping the soil becomes less productive because of less amount of nutrients.In order to keep up soil fertility and get good yields of various crops,it is necessary to add materials containing nitrogen, potassium in the form of manures (uram).Which may be natural or artificial.The artificial manures are called chemical fertilizers.

Functions of essential nutrients:
Nitrogen:
 Nitrogen is highly essential for raid growth of plants.
It improves the yields of the cropIt also increases the protein content in the crop
Phosphorus:
Phosphates are potential source of phosphorus for plants.It is a highly valuable fertilizers.It promotes early growth and maturity of plants.It helps in the formation of high yield seeds.
Potassium:
It develops healthy root system in the plants.
Potassium compounds are generally used in the mixed fertilizers containing Nitrogen,Phosphorus .It is also known as N.P.K fertilizers.



Source (Principles of inorganic chemistry and wikipedia)

Biological Functions and Toxicity of some Elements

Several elements are harmful ,are useful for biological systems.
Some of the elements are listed below:-
Chromium:
This is a essential element for human body which is involved in glucose metabolism.Chromium and insulin maintains the correct level of glucose in blood.If it is absent in human body leads to the removal of glucose from the blood lesser than normal level.
Iodine:
Iodine is a essential element for many organisms .It is important incredient of thyroxine. its deficiency leads to goitre (kalalai).Iodine ions are not toxic.
Mercury:
It has no biological function.But it is highly toxic to fungi,plants and animals.
It is present in all living things  in the environment.
 Every food we eat contains a little mercury.
Manganese:
It is an essential element for all organisms.The manganese enzyme produced in the liver converts nitrogenous waste into urea. It activates several enzymes.Manganese deficiency in soil leads to inhibit the growth of plants and animals .Manganese is essential for plant growth.




Source:( The Principles of Inorganic Chemistry by Puri, Sharma and Kalia)

Lead

Lead is group 4 of the periodic table of chemical elements. This is a non-radioactive element.This metal has the biggest atomic mass compared to other non-radioactive metal. It is soft and silvery metal.It is very easy to scratch and also 1.5 times softer than the gold.
Is is also a very easy to melt a metals because its melting point is 327 degrees. Lead is very stable on air and do not react with acid solution . Lead and Lead compounds are toxic so be careful when using experiments.


Source(YouTube ):https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LjpthO4r1GY.

Radioactivity

Radioactivity or nuclear radiation is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation, such as an alpha particle, beta particle .Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel, while working with phosphorescent materials.

Radiation does not vary with chemical state.
In 1896, the French physicist Antoine Henri Becquerel accidentally found that a uranium-rich mineral called pitchblende emitted invisible, penetrating rays that could darken a photographic plate enclosed in an opaque envelope.

 While working on phosphorescent materials, he happened to place the pitchblende on black paper that he had used to cover a piece of film. When he looked more carefully, he noticed that the film had lots of patches on it, and that this did not happen when other elements were placed on the paper. He eventually concluded that some rays must be coming out of the uranium crystals to produce this effect.

This means that rays carry energy, but pitchblende (a form of the mineral uraninite occurring in brown or black masses and containing radium ) emits them continuously without any energy input. This is an apparent violation of the law of conservation of energy. It was soon evident that Becquerel’s rays originated in the nuclei of the atoms.

The emission of these rays is called nuclear radioactivity, or simply radioactivity. The rays are called nuclear radiation. A nucleus that spontaneously destroys part of its mass to emit radiation is said to decay. A substance or object that emits nuclear radiation is said to be radioactive. Becquerel found radiation to be associated with certain elements, such as uranium.

 Uranium is radioactive whether it is in the form of an element or compound. In addition, radiation does not vary with temperature, pressure, or ionization state of the uranium atom. Since all of these factors affect electrons in an atom, the radiation cannot come from electron transitions, as atomic spectra do.